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Extending Protection Against Cruelty to Live-In Partners

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The Supreme Court addressed a crucial question of law regarding whether a man in a live-in relationship can be prosecuted under Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) for subjecting his partner to cruelty. Upholding a purposive interpretation over a hyper-technical construction of the penal statute, the Court ruled that the expression “husband” under Section 498A is not strictly confined to individuals in a legally valid traditional marriage. Instead, it extends to “relationships in the nature of marriage” (live-in relationships) provided the partnership bears the clear attributes of a marital union and includes the explicit intent of the parties to take the relationship into matrimony. To balance this expansion and prevent potential misuse, the Court held that a higher standard of proof—specifically the initial burden on the female partner to establish the intent to marry—alongside existing safeguards like those outlined in Arnesh Kumar, must strictly apply.

  • Core Legal Question: The appeals arose from a petition under Section 482 of the CrPC to quash criminal proceedings under Section 498A IPC, centering on whether penal liability for matrimonial cruelty can apply outside a formal, legally solemnized marriage.
  • Purposive vs. Literal Interpretation: Rejecting the appellant’s contention that penal statutes must be interpreted strictly and literally to exclude non-traditional unions, the Court emphasized that socially beneficent and reformative legislation must be interpreted purposefully to realize its objective—combating the societal evil of domestic cruelty and fulfilling constitutional guarantees under Articles 14, 15, and 21.
  • Distinction from Civil Remedies (DV Act): While the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 (DV Act) provides comprehensive civil remedies for various types of live-in arrangements, its protective scope largely lacks penal deterrence (barring breach of protection orders under Section 31). Hence, excluding criminal accountability under Section 498A for akin relationships creates an arbitrary classification violating Article 14.
  • Conditions for Applicability: The Court clarified that not all live-in relationships qualify. Only those relationships that are “in the nature of marriage” (fulfilling criteria like shared household, pooled resources, socialization, and domestic arrangements akin to Indra Sarma) and possess the mutual intent of the parties to transition into matrimony fall within the fold of Section 498A.
  • Burden of Proof & Safeguards: Because Section 498A carries criminal liability and imprisonment, a higher standard of proof is mandated. The initial burden rests on the female live-in partner to prove the presence of the intent to marry. Furthermore, all judicial safeguards against the misuse of Section 498A—such as mandatory compliance with Section 41/41A CrPC guidelines established in Arnesh Kumar—apply rigorously to these cases.

2026 INSC 784

Dr. Lokesh B.H. & Ors. v. State of Karnataka & Anr (D.O.J. 03.07.2026)

2026 INSC 784 click here to view full text of judgment

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Independent Obligations vs. Fiduciary Investments: Father’s Right to Set Off PPF Maturity Proceeds Against Child Maintenance

August 4, 2026 No Comments

This Regular First Appeal under Section 96 read with Order XLI of the CPC was filed by the appellant/father (Sudhir Kawatra) to challenge the judgment and decree dated January 10, 2023 passed by the Additional District Judge, Delhi, which decreed the respondent/daughter’s (Shamli Kawatra) recovery suit for Rs. 8,13,853.79/- along with 8% per annum interest under Order XII Rule 6 of the CPC based on categorical admissions. The dispute arose after the appellant closed a Public Provident Fund (PPF) account opened in his daughter’s name during her minority, withdrew the entire maturity corpus of Rs. 8,13,853.79/-, and transferred it to his personal account while giving an undertaking to the bank that it would be used for her education and welfare—an obligation he failed to fulfill. In defense, the father argued that he was entitled to close the account and claimed he should be allowed to set off this amount against the monthly maintenance payments he made to his daughter and wife pursuant to Family Court and High Court orders.

Upon review, the High Court of Delhi dismissed the appeal and upheld the trial court’s judgment. The court held that a parent’s legal responsibility to maintain a child is an independent statutory and moral duty, distinct from investments or savings made for the child’s future corpus. While the father’s closure of the PPF account under the PPF Act may have been procedurally valid, the maturity proceeds belonged beneficially to the daughter upon attaining majority, and the father held them merely in a fiduciary capacity as a guardian. Crucially, a parent cannot utilize a child’s personal investment corpus to discharge their independent legal responsibility to pay maintenance. Because the father unequivocally admitted in his pleadings to withdrawing the funds and failing to hand them over, the trial court correctly exercised its discretion under Order XII Rule 6 CPC to decree the suit for the entire amount.

  • Factual Background and Dispute Origin:
    • On December 9, 1999, the appellant/father opened a minor PPF account in the name of his daughter (the respondent) at the State Bank of India, Janakpuri Branch.
    • The respondent attained majority on November 13, 2016. When she later approached the bank to convert the account into a normal major account, she discovered that the appellant had closed the account on October 18, 2016, upon maturity, and withdrawn the entire balance of Rs. 8,13,853.79/- into his personal account.
    • The appellant provided an undertaking to the bank that the funds would be spent on the respondent’s higher education and well-being, which he failed to do.
  • Suit for Recovery and Trial Court Decision:
    • Following matrimonial discord between her parents and financial strain regarding her BBA education fees, the respondent filed a recovery suit.
    • The trial court decreed the suit under Order XII Rule 6 CPC for the full sum of Rs. 8,13,853.79/- with 8% per annum interest, ruling that clear admissions existed and that maintenance payments could not be adjusted against the daughter’s independent investment corpus.
  • Appellant/Father’s Contentions:
    • The withdrawal was executed in good faith under the PPF Act, and the suit was barred under Section 10 of the PPF Act.
    • The appellant was entitled to close the account and should receive credit/adjustment for Rs. 6,00,000/- paid toward the daughter’s maintenance (at Rs. 12,000/- per month) under a Family Court order, alongside monthly maintenance paid to his wife.
    • The suit involved mixed questions of fact and law requiring full trial, making a judgment on admissions improper.
  • High Court’s Analysis and Findings:
    • Investment vs. Maintenance: The court distinguished between long-term investments made for a child’s future and day-to-day maintenance. Maintenance is an independent legal obligation of a parent. A father cannot utilize his child’s personal investment funds to off-set or discharge his own independent duty to pay maintenance.
    • Fiduciary Capacity: Although the father contributed the savings and closed the account upon maturity, the corpus belonged beneficially to the daughter. He held the funds only as a guardian in a fiduciary capacity and was legally obligated to hand them over to her upon majority.
    • Propriety of Order XII Rule 6 CPC: Because the appellant categorically admitted in his pleadings to withdrawing the entire amount and transferring it to his account, the trial court rightly invoked Order XII Rule 6 CPC to pass a judgment on admissions.
  • Final Order:
    • The appeal along with pending applications was dismissed.
    • The impugned judgment and decree dated January 10, 2023, awarding Rs. 8,13,853.79/- with 8% interest per annum, was affirmed as well-reasoned.

2026 DHC 6228

Sudhir Kawatra v. Shamli Kawatra (D.O.J. 03.08.2026)

2026 DHC 6228 click here to view full text of judgment

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High Court Dismisses Enforcement Petition Following Extinguishment of Arbitral Claim via Corporate Insolvency

August 4, 2026 No Comments

This enforcement petition under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 was filed by Metso India Pvt. Ltd. (Decree Holder) against M/s McNally Bharat Engineering Co. Ltd. (Judgment Debtor) to execute the arbitral award dated May 5, 2018. Concurrently, the Judgment Debtor had challenged the same arbitral award under Section 34 of the Act in O.M.P. (COMM) 362/2018. During the pendency of these proceedings, the Judgment Debtor underwent Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process (CIRP), and a resolution plan was approved by the NCLT.

Given that the Decree Holder failed to lodge its claim before the Resolution Professional, the coordinate challenge petition (O.M.P. (COMM) 362/2018) was dismissed as infructuous on August 3, 2026, on the ground that the underlying debt stood extinguished under Section 31 of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC). Consequently, relying on that judgment, the High Court of Delhi dismissed the present enforcement petition as well, noting that no further orders were called for, and disposed of all pending execution applications.

  • Factual Background and Enforcement Origin:
    • The Decree Holder (Metso India Pvt. Ltd.) sought enforcement of the arbitral award dated May 5, 2018, secured against the Judgment Debtor (MBECL).
    • Parallelly, the Judgment Debtor challenged the award under Section 34 of the Act in M.P. (COMM) 362/2018.
  • Intervening Insolvency Developments:
    • MBECL was admitted into CIRP, and a resolution plan was successfully approved by the NCLT.
    • Because the Decree Holder did not submit its claim to the Resolution Professional during the insolvency process, the underlying arbitral claim stood extinguished by operation of law under Section 31 of the IBC.
  • Court’s Analysis and Order:
    • In the connected matter (M.P. (COMM) 362/2018), the High Court ruled that the unsubmitted claim was extinguished and the Section 34 petition was rendered infructuous.
    • In view of the judgment passed in the connected matter on August 3, 2026, the court held that no further orders or execution steps could survive.
    • The enforcement petition (OMP (ENF.) (COMM.) 270/2018) was accordingly dismissed, along with all pending applications.

2026 DHC 6219

Metso India Pvt. Ltd. v. M/s McNally Bharat Engineering Co. Ltd. (D.O.J. 03.08.2026)

2026 DHC 6219 click here to view full text of judgment

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High Court Sustains Valid Portions While Setting Aside Unsupported Damages in Railway Arbitration Award

August 4, 2026 No Comments

This petition under Section 34 of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 was filed by the Union of India (Northern Railway) to challenge an arbitral award dated December 4, 2024. The underlying dispute arose from a railway doubling contract awarded to the respondent for earth filling, construction of minor bridges, and service buildings between Roza and Jahanikhera. Though the work was completed following multiple extensions, disputes relating to deductions, price variation, and prolongation costs led to arbitration. The arbitral tribunal partially allowed the respondent’s claims, awarding a total sum of Rs. 65,73,261/- along with interest.

Upon reviewing the challenge, the High Court of Delhi partly allowed the petition. The court upheld the tribunal’s findings regarding the refund of wrongful deductions under Schedule ‘A’ items (Claim No. 1) and minor calculations, noting that the petitioner violated specific contractual thresholds by making chapter-wise deductions instead of cumulative schedule-wide assessments. However, the High Court set aside the damages awarded under Claim No. 4 (prolongation losses) and Claim No. 6 (interest recast as damages). The court held that awarding damages without evidence of actual loss or proof that such loss was impossible to prove violates Section 73 of the Indian Contract Act. Utilizing the doctrine of severability under Section 34(2)(a)(iv) and Supreme Court precedent, the invalid portions were cleanly severed and set aside while preserving the valid parts.

  • Contractual Background and Dispute Origin: Northern Railway awarded a contract for earth filling and construction works in connection with the Roza-Sitapur doubling project. The project faced delays, and after six extensions, work was completed on December 15, 2021. The respondent subsequently invoked arbitration under Clause 64 of the General Conditions of Contract (GCC).
  • Tribunal’s Award: The arbitral tribunal awarded the respondent Rs. 65,73,261/- in full settlement, which included:
    • Claim No. 1: 12,31,922/- for wrong application of tender conditions on USSOR items (Schedule ‘A’).
    • Claim No. 3: 6,52,551/- for wrong calculation of Price Variation Clause (PVC).
    • Claim No. 4: 36,88,921/- as damages for contract prolongation.
    • Claim No. 6: 9,99,867/- awarded as damages in lieu of pre-completion interest.
  • Petitioner’s Key Contentions:
    • The tribunal erred in granting a refund for Schedule ‘A’ deductions, which petitioner argued fell under ‘excepted matters’ or correct practices.
    • The award of damages for prolongation (Claim No. 4) was illegal and unsupported by any proof of actual loss, violating Section 73 of the Contract Act.
    • Awarding interest as damages under Claim No. 6—after rejecting standard interest—was completely outside the scope of submission and contract terms.
  • Court’s Analysis and Findings:
    • Schedule ‘A’ Deductions (Claim No. 1): The court found the tribunal’s view completely plausible. Under GCC Clause 42.4(6), the 25% variation limit for Schedule-A SOR items applies to the schedule as a whole, not chapter-wise. The petitioner’s chapter-wise deductions violated the contract terms, precluding them from invoking the ‘excepted matter’ shield.
    • Prolongation Damages (Claim No. 4): Citing Supreme Court benchmarks in Kailash Nath Associates and Ferro Concrete Construction, the court emphasized that proof of actual loss (or impossibility thereof) is a sine qua non for awarding damages under Section 73 of the Contract Act. Because the respondent adduced no evidence of actual loss, Claim No. 4 was patently illegal.
    • Interest as Damages (Claim No. 6): The court noted that the tribunal rejected interest per contract terms but paradoxically awarded the same amount as damages, rendering the relief beyond the scope of arbitration and patently illegal.
  • Final Order: Invoking the power of severability clarified in Gayatri Balasamy v. ISG Novasoft Technologies Ltd., the High Court upheld Claim Nos. 1 and 3, but severed and set aside Claim Nos. 4 and 6 due to patent illegality and contravention of the Contract Act, thereby partly allowing the petition.

2026 DHC 6217

Union of India Through Dy. Chief Engineer Construction Moradabad v. M/s Pragati Construction Consultants (D.O.J. 03.08.2026)

2026 DHC 6217 click here to view full text of judgment

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Arbitration: High Court Sets Aside Severable Arbitral Award for Relief Beyond Scope

August 4, 2026 No Comments

This judgment arises from a petition filed under Section 34 of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) challenging an arbitral award dated May 4, 2023. The dispute originated from a consultancy contract awarded for the design, construction, and maintenance of a cable-stayed bridge across the river Chambal in Kota, Rajasthan, which suffered a collapse during construction in December 2009. Although NHAI initially issued a show-cause notice and deliberated on imposing penalties, it ultimately chose to have the project completed through the same joint venture consultant without executing a formal supplementary agreement altering original terms.

When disputes regarding unpaid dues and operational/maintenance (O&M) charges arose, the matter went to arbitration, resulting in the tribunal awarding claims for both the construction period (Claim No. 1) and O&M charges extending past the award date (Claim No. 2), alongside costs. Upon review, the High Court of Delhi partly allowed NHAI’s petition. It upheld Claim No. 1 and rejected limitation challenges, but it set aside Claim No. 2 on the grounds that the tribunal had granted relief beyond the prayers and scope of submission (by awarding charges for future services not yet rendered) and violated principles of natural justice and Section 18 of the Act by relying on unaddressed material/financial implications obtained behind NHAI’s back. Invoking the doctrine of severability under Section 34(2)(a)(iv), the invalid portion of the award was cleanly severed and set aside.

  • Background and Contractual Scope: NHAI engaged the respondent joint venture for a consultancy contract spanning four phases—code/design establishment, proof checking, construction supervision, and Operation & Maintenance (O&M)—for a cable-stayed bridge in Kota, Rajasthan.
  • The Incident and Continuation of Work: Following an accident on December 24, 2009, that damaged the under-construction bridge, NHAI constituted a Committee of Experts and issued a show-cause notice, but never took penal or termination steps to their logical conclusion. Instead, NHAI elected to continue utilizing the consultant’s services for the extended project timeline.
  • Arbitral Tribunal’s Decision: The arbitral tribunal ruled in favor of the claimant, granting Claim No. 1 for the construction period (INR 5,39,38,987 and USD 12,74,174.17 with interest) and Claim No. 2 for O&M charges (awarding USD 60,769 and INR 5,16,82,887 after certain deductions).
  • Core Contentions of NHAI:
    • The tribunal failed to adjudicate core liability regarding the 2009 bridge collapse.
    • The tribunal granted relief beyond the scope of prayers by awarding O&M payments for future services extending up to November 2023.
    • The tribunal violated natural justice and Section 18 of the Act by relying on an e-mail regarding the financial implications of employing an unqualified expert (Sh. Sunil Bohra) submitted behind NHAI’s back without granting an opportunity to rebut.
    • The claims were barred by limitation, having arisen from a 2012 executive committee decision.
  • Court’s Analysis and Findings:
    • Fixing Responsibility: The court found NHAI’s argument ill-founded because NHAI never took its penal/termination proceedings to a logical conclusion and continued work under original terms.
    • Limitation: The court rejected the limitation plea, holding that the cause of action crystallized when NHAI finally rejected the remaining claims on April 21, 2020, making the invocation of arbitration on January 26, 2021, timely.
    • Relief Beyond Scope and Natural Justice Breach: The court agreed that granting O&M charges for future periods post-dating the award violated Section 34(2)(a)(iv). Furthermore, relying on unvetted financial data submitted via e-mail without letting NHAI respond breached Section 18 and attracted the bar outlined in Ssangyong Engineering.
  • Final Order: Exercising the inherent and statutory power of severability under the proviso to Section 34(2)(a)(iv) and recent Supreme Court jurisprudence (Gayatri Balasamy v. ISG Novasoft Technologies Ltd.), the court severed and set aside the award exclusively as it related to Claim No. 2, while leaving the rest of the award intact, thus partly allowing the petition.

2026 DHC 6216

National Highways Authority of India v. The Louis Berger Group Inc. JV with M/s. COWI A/S (D.O.J. 03.08.2026)

2026 DHC 6216 click here to view full text of judgment

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